Founded in 2019 and based in Cyprus, Doto is a modern forex and CFD broker offering over 220 tradable instruments. What really makes it stand out is its sleek, intuitive trading platform powered by TradingView charts and Trading Central signals — a great combo for traders who like clean visuals and data-driven insights.
If you prefer something familiar, Doto also supports MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5, available on desktop, web, and mobile.
When it comes to fees, Doto keeps things simple with commission-free trading and cost-free deposits and withdrawals. While its spreads vary across instruments and its overnight fees (swaps) can be a bit high, overall, it’s still accessible and transparent.
I also found Doto’s customer support to be one of the best around — responsive, friendly, and backed by a smart chatbot that actually works.
On the other hand, there’s no copy trading or Islamic account option, and the education section is somewhat limited and could benefit from more detailed learning resources.
Overall, Doto is a great choice for day traders who rely on real-time signals and technical traders who appreciate advanced charting tools in a user-friendly package.
| Pros | Cons |
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When reviewing a broker, we assess whether it suits different trading strategies and trader profiles. To achieve this, we evaluate the availability of the necessary features and tools. Here’s our verdict about Doto:
Doto’s trading platform features a user-friendly interface and is integrated with advanced market analytics. This all-in-one package is a perfect fit for casual traders, who can also benefit from the broker’s low deposit requirement of only $15.
The Doto platform’s expressive and high-definition charts, powered by the seamless TradingView, are ideal for spotting viable trading opportunities. Moreover, the platform is integrated with actionable trading signals provided by Trading Central.
I counted 11 ETFs and 13 indices available with Doto, which are favorable assets for longer-term trading. However, live testing revealed that Doto’s swaps exceed the industry average, which is not suitable for overnight trading.
The highly versatile charts of Doto’s flagship platform make it an ideal tool for spotting even minor developments in price action. Scalpers can also opt for the broker’s Raw account with spreads from 0.0 pips. On the downside, this account has $7 round-turn commission, which exceeds the industry average of $6.
News traders can stay synced with the latest market developments thanks to the news screener and Trading Central content integrated into the Doto trading platform. However, the broker’s own research content could be more diverse and nuanced.
Automated trading via Expert Advisors (EAs) is available on MT4 and MT5. MetaTrader also features built-in strategy testers, allowing traders to fine-tune the parameters of their strategies. The only thing lacking in Doto’s offering is VPS hosting.
The broker does not support social and copy trading.
Doto does not provide real stocks for value investing and portfolio building.
Doto’s standout feature is its sleek web platform, also available on mobile. It comes packed with TradingView-powered charts and market insights from Trading Central, making it great for traders who like detailed analysis without extra hassle.
Another great thing about Doto is its unique lineup of instruments — you’ll find rare pairs like XAUSGD that most other brokers don’t offer.
I opened a Standard account with Doto South Africa (Pty) Ltd and performed my tests on the desktop and mobile versions of the MetaTrader 5 platform. Some features and services may vary depending on your location.
| ☑️ Regulations | FSCA (South Africa), CySEC (Cyprus), FSCM (Mauritius), FSA (Seychelles) |
| 🗺 Supported Languages | English, Indonesian, Bahasa, Portuguese, Arabic, Spanish, Russian, Thai, Vietnamese |
| 💰 Products | Currencies, Stocks, ETFs, Crypto, Indices, Commodities |
| 💵 Min Deposit | $15 |
| 💹 Max Leverage | 1:500 (FSCA), 1:30 (CySEC), 1:500 (FSCM), 1:500 (FSA) |
| 🖥 Trading Desk Type | STP, No dealing desk |
| 📊 Trading Platforms | MT4, MT5, Doto Platform |
| 💳 Deposit Options | Wire Transfer, Credit Card, Debit Card, Local Banks, Local Payment Methods |
| 💳 Withdrawal Options | Wire Transfer, Credit Card, Debit Card, Cryptocurrencies |
| 🤴 Demo Account | Yes |
| 🗓 Foundation Year | 2019 |
| 🌎 Headquarters Country | Cyprus |
Doto operates four entities licensed and regulated by the FSCA, CySEC, FSC (Mauritius), and the FSA (Seychelles). The broker keeps client funds in segregated accounts, though negative balance protection is confirmed only with a European entity. I also found that Doto is a member of The Financial Commission and maintains transparent legal documents.
| Entity Features | Doto South Africa (Pty) Ltd | Doto Europe Ltd | Doto Global Ltd | Doto International Ltd |
| Country/Region | South Africa/Johannesburg | Cyprus/Limassol | Mauritius/Ebene | Seychelles/Mahe |
| Regulator | FSCA | CySEC | FSC | FSA |
| Tier | 2 | 1 | 3 | 3 |
| Segregated Funds | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Negative Balance Protection | No | Yes | No | No |
| Compensation Scheme | Up to EUR 20,000 under The Financial Commission | Up to EUR 20,000 under ICF | Up to EUR 20,000 under The Financial Commission | Up to EUR 20,000 under The Financial Commission |
| Maximum Leverage | 1:500 | 1:30 | 1:500 | 1:500 |
When reviewing brokers, we examine the licenses held by each of their entities to assess how effectively they protect clients. We use a simple three-tier system to rank regulatory bodies, with Tier-1 being the most trusted and offering the highest level of protection.
This is what I discovered about the four entities operating under the Doto trade name:
Brokers operate multiple entities globally, but regulatory protections vary. Some regulators enforce stricter financial standards than others, so traders should understand the safety measures of the entity with which they choose to open an account.
Here is how Doto South Africa (Pty) Ltd protects you:
✅ Segregated accounts – Client funds are kept separate from the company’s own capital.
✅ Compensation scheme – In case of insolvency, your funds will be reimbursed up to EUR 20,000 under The Financial Commission.
❌ Negative balance protection – Your losses may exceed your invested capital.
To learn more about the most important safety mechanisms and how they apply to you, click here.
In our Trust category, we assess how stable and transparent a broker is. This includes how long they’ve been in business, the size of the company, and how openly they share important information.
I looked into Doto’s background and found that the broker has been around since 2019, employing over 51-200 professionals worldwide, according to its LinkedIn page.
I also discovered that Doto is a member of The Financial Commission, a respected dispute resolution body for forex brokers and their clients. This membership provides an additional layer of protection, offering compensation of up to EUR 20,000 in the event of broker insolvency.
My only concerns about transparency are the absence of a live spreads feed on the website and the lack of confirmation for negative balance protection. While Doto mentions this safety measure on its website, I couldn’t find proof of it in the broker’s risk notice or client agreement.
I concluded that Doto is sufficiently safe to trade with due to the following factors:
I found that Doto’s fees are a bit of a mixed bag. The good news is that it doesn’t charge commissions and keeps spreads on forex and share CFDs quite competitive. However, during my testing, spreads on gold and indices were noticeably higher, and overnight fees also exceeded the industry average. On the plus side, deposits and withdrawals are free, though inactive accounts get hit with a $15 dormancy fee.
I tested Doto’s spreads on 7 October 2025 during the London and New York opens. The results are shown in the table below:
| Instrument | Live Spread AM | Live Spread PM | Industry Average |
| EURUSD | 1.1 pips | 1.0 pips | 1.08 pips |
| GBPJPY | 2.2 pips | 2.4 pips | 2.44 pips |
| Gold (XAUUSD) | 52 pips | 44 pips | 23 pips |
| Crude Oil | 0.04 pips | 0.04 pips | 0.03 pips |
| Apple | NA | 0.22 points | 0.33 points |
| Tesla | NA | 0.33 points | 0.50 points |
| Dow Jones 30 | 6 basis points | 6 basis points | 3.3 basis points |
| Germany 40 | 6 basis points | 5.2 basis points | 2.4 basis points |
| Bitcoin | $55 | $56 | $34 |
According to my findings, Doto charges low spreads on Apple and Tesla stocks, average spreads on EURUSD, GBPJPY, and crude oil, and high spreads on gold, DAX 40, US 30, and BTCUSD.
A swap fee is the cost of keeping a trade open overnight, and it’s tied to the difference in interest rates between the two currencies in a pair. If you’re holding a buy (long) position, you may either pay or earn interest depending on the rates—this is called a swap long. The same applies to a sell (short) position, where the overnight charge or credit is called a swap short.
The values listed below are for one full base currency contract (100,000 units).
| Instrument | Swap Long | Swap Short |
| EURUSD | Charge of $10.01 | Credit of $4.03 |
| GBPJPY | Credit of $13.98 | Charge of $28.61 |
| Gold (XAUUSD) | Charge of $986.34 | Credit of $58.47 |
Live testing revealed that Doto’s overnight fees exceeded the industry benchmark for all instruments I tested. While its EURUSD swap long was only marginally higher than the industry average, its XAUUSD swap was one of the highest I have ever recorded.
However, swaps tend to fluctuate over time.
Doto charges a $15 inactivity fee to dormant accounts after six months of no trading activity. The fee is applied monthly until you resume trading or your account balance reaches zero.
The broker does not impose a handling fee for deposits or withdrawals; however, third-party processing fees may still apply.
Doto’s fees are mixed and vary in competitiveness. On the one hand, its forex and share CFD spreads are competitive, but the spreads on indices and gold were quite high. Doto also charges elevated swaps, but its non-trading charges are kept at a minimum.
Doto has developed a versatile and feature-rich trading platform that combines advanced TradingView charting with AI-driven market insights. The platform offers integrated market analytics and a trading calendar that keeps users informed about important global events and data releases. The platform is also available on mobile devices. For traders seeking a more familiar interface, Doto offers both MetaTrader 4 and MetaTrader 5.
| Platform/Tool | Suitable For |
| Doto Platform (Web and mobile) | Account management, advanced market analytics, advanced technical analysis, simplified order execution |
| MetaTrader 4 (Web, desktop, mobile) | Easy order execution, basic technical analysis, automated trading, and trading on the go |
| MetaTrader 5 (Web, desktop, mobile) | Easy order execution, basic technical analysis, automated trading, and trading on the go |
I tested the MetaTrader 5 (MT5) desktop platform and found it relatively easy to navigate. The main dashboard is intuitive, with charts, order types, and trading instruments located in familiar places. Even first-time users can grasp the basics with minimal effort.
However, the platform’s design feels somewhat outdated. Compared to more modern trading platforms, MT5’s chart visuals are rugged and lack the sleek, polished look that many traders today prefer.
The MT5 platform by Doto is available for Windows and Mac users and supports 39 languages, including English, Spanish, German, Arabic, and Chinese — making it accessible to traders around the globe.
MT5 features include:
In my view, MT5 really shines when it comes to automated trading. It supports Expert Advisors (EAs) and comes with an easy-to-use strategy tester, allowing algo traders to fine-tune their systems for different market conditions.
MT5 is loaded with analytical tools, including:
That said, the charts can get visually cluttered quite fast — even when only two indicators are active. This can make it harder to interpret price action clearly and may not be ideal for traders who rely heavily on clean, minimalistic chart setups.
Placing an order on MetaTrader 5
MT5 offers three execution modes and covers all the core order types needed by most traders:
MetaTrader 5 is a solid platform for fast and straightforward trading, particularly if you’re into algorithmic strategies or use EAs. It’s reliable, packed with tools, and supports detailed trade execution.
However, its interface feels dated compared to more modern alternatives like TradingView or cTrader. If you’re a trader who values sleek design and customizable charting, MT4 might feel a bit too rigid and visually overwhelming.
The MT5 mobile app is available on iOS and Android, enabling quick and easy access to the market on the go. It is very useful for opening, terminating, and adjusting open positions.
You can also use the app to place market, limit, and stop orders, as well as to adjust the exposure of your open trades.
Doto’s flagship web platform is a major step up from MetaTrader, thanks to its TradingView-powered charting suite. Price action is displayed in greater detail and can be scaled smoothly, while traders have access to over 100 analytical tools and chart configurations for deeper technical analysis.
The platform also integrates Trading Central signals, giving day traders actionable entry and exit points, plus access to useful tools like a market sentiment gauge and the Market Buzz feature — all directly within the web trader. I also appreciated the full-screen chart mode, which is perfect for traders who want to study price movements in high definition.
My only gripe is that the platform doesn’t yet support copy trading, which would make an otherwise excellent tool even more complete.
Doto’s mobile app retains the flexibility and usability of its web counterpart. The app can be used for account management and trading on the go. It also features Doto’s proprietary AI-powered trading signals, which analyze market sentiment and technical setups to help traders spot potential opportunities in real time.
Additionally, Doto App offers access to market analytics and a built-in trading calendar, enabling users to stay informed about key economic events. I found the app’s design light, modern, and easy to navigate.
Doto offers over 220 CFD instruments across currency pairs, commodities, shares, indices, cryptocurrencies, and ETFs. The offering is reasonably diverse and features some rare assets, such as XAUSGD.
| Markets | Number | Types | Contract Types | Industry Average |
| Forex Pairs | 74 | Major, Minor, and Exotic | Spot | 30 – 75 |
| Commodities | 18 | Metals and Energies | Spot | 5 – 10 |
| Shares | 93 | Retail, Tech, Financial, Other | CFD | 100 – 500 |
| Indices | 13 | US, EU, Asia, Other | Cash | 10 – 20 |
| Cryptocurrencies | 29 | Major and Minor | CFD | 10 – 20 |
| ETFs | 11 | Financial | CFD | 5 – 10 |
Compared to the industry average, Doto offers a high number of currency pairs, commodities, and cryptocurrencies, an average number of indices, and a low number of stocks.
CFDs (Contracts for Difference) let you trade on the price movements of assets—like gold—without actually owning them.
For example, if you go long on gold and the price rises, you profit; if it falls, you lose—without ever buying real gold.
The biggest perk? You can jump in or out of the market quickly to take advantage of even the smallest price changes.
| Currency Pairs | Commodities |
| EURUSD | GBPJPY | EURCHF | AUDCAD | CADJPY | GBPNZD | Gold | Crude Oil | Brent Oil | Silver | Zinc | Palladium | Nickel | Natural Gas |
| Shares CFDs | Indices |
| Apple | Tesla | Google | Microsoft | META | IBM | General Electric | Nike | Dow Jones 30 | Germany 40 | Nasdaq 100 | Japan 225 | S&P 500 |
| Cryptocurrencies | ETFs |
| Bitcoin | Chainlink | Ethereum | Litecoin | Stellar | Dogecoin | Cardano | Vanguard SP 500 ETF | SPDR Gold Trust | Invesco QQQ Trust CFD | iShares Russell 2000 ETF |
In my estimation, Doto’s tradable instruments offering is reasonably diverse. I appreciated the large forex and commodity selections, especially the addition of rare instruments like XAUSGD. However, the broker could enhance its general offering by expanding its selection of share CFDs and adding more low-risk securities, such as bonds and ETFs.
Doto offers 24/7 multilingual support via live chat, email, and phone. The live chat features a sophisticated chatbot for addressing more general questions, as well as the option to speak with live agents. I found Doto’s agents to be pretty knowledgeable and very responsive. Overall, I rate Doto’s support as very high quality.
| Live Chat | Phone | |
| 24/7 from the website | support@doto.com | +27(0)112820621 |
When we test a broker’s customer support, we evaluate the agent’s knowledge of their own website, the time it takes them to respond to questions, and the level of detail in their answers.
I tested Doto’s customer support by asking a series of questions of varying complexity on 7 October at around 12:47 CET via live chat. The chatbot handled most of my queries well, but couldn’t answer a question about Doto’s execution model.
When I requested a live agent, the connection was almost instant. The agent immediately understood my question and provided a clear, satisfactory answer.
Overall, I was pleased with Doto’s customer support. The chatbot is efficient enough to handle around 90% of common queries, and for anything more complex, knowledgeable live agents are readily available to help.
| Available Languages |
| English, Indonesian, Malay, Portuguese, Arabic, Spanish, Russian, Thai, Vietnamese |
Doto accepts payments via bank wire, credit and debit cards, as well as several e-wallets. It does not charge a handling fee for deposits or withdrawals, although third-party banking fees may still apply. Doto’s transaction times are quite fast.
| Deposit Method | Minimum Amount | Fee | Processing Time |
| Bank Wire | $15 | $0 | Up to 1 business day |
| Credit/Debit Cards | $15 | $0 | Up to 15 minutes |
| MoMo | $15 | $0 | Up to 15 minutes |
| QR Payments | $15 | $0 | Up to 15 minutes |
| USDT | $15 | $0 | Up to 15 minutes |
| Withdrawal Method | Minimum Amount | Fee | Processing Time |
| Bank Wire | $10 | $0 | Instant |
| Credit/Debit Cards | $1 | $0 | Instant |
| USDT | $10 | $0 | Instant |
Doto provides two retail account types: Standard and Raw. The Standard account features floating spreads from 1.0 pips and no commissions, while the Raw account features spreads from 0.0 pips and a $7 round-turn commission. The broker currently does not offer Islamic accounts for swap-free trading.
To open an account with Doto, follow these simple steps:
| Account Type | Standard | Raw |
| Spread From | 1.0 pips | 0.0 pips |
| Commission* | $0 | $7 |
| Base Currencies | USD, ZAR, INR | USD, ZAR, IDR |
| Minimum Deposit | $15 | $200 |
| Minimum Traded Volume | 0.01 lot | 0.01 lot |
| Standard Contract Size | 100,000 units | 100,000 units |
| Margin Call | 100% | 100% |
| Stop Out | 50% | 50% |
| Swap Free Account | No | No |
| Demo Account | Yes | Yes |
*Round-turn per one full contract
The Standard account requires a minimum deposit of $15, making it accessible to most traders. It features zero commissions and floating spreads, offering a simple and affordable setup ideal for casual and beginner traders.
In contrast, the Raw account features more competitive spreads and is a better fit for high-volume traders. However, its $7 round-turn commission per traded lot (100,000 units) exceeds the industry average of $6. The Raw account’s minimum deposit requirement of $200 is aligned with other ECN accounts.
Doto offers a demo account that lets traders explore the broker’s available platforms and test their strategies in a risk-free environment. Since markets are constantly changing, it’s crucial to keep your skills sharp without risking real money. You can open a demo account before or alongside your live CFD account.
Doto does not offer Islamic accounts for swap-free trading.
Leverage determines a trader’s overall market exposure. When trading Contracts for Difference (CFDs), positions can be opened for a fraction of their value because of leverage. Essentially, the broker lends the trader money, allowing them to open larger positions. Leverage multiplies the profits a trader generates from winning positions, but also the losses incurred from failed trades.
In the table below, I have listed the maximum retail leverage available with Doto for instruments from different asset classes:
| Asset | Maximum Leverage |
| Currency Pairs | 1:500 |
| Metals | 1:100 |
| Energies | 1:100 |
| Share CFDs | 1:20 |
| Indices | 1:200 |
| Cryptocurrencies | 1:50 |
Doto does not accept as clients residents of American Samoa, Australia, Belgium, Canada, the Central African Republic, China, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Eritrea, the European Union, Guam, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, Iran, Israel, Japan, Liberia, Libya, Mali, Mauritius, Myanmar, New Zealand, North Korea, Northern Mariana Islands, Norway, Puerto Rico, Russia, Somalia, Sudan, the Syrian Arab Republic, Switzerland, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United States Minor Outlying Islands, the United States of America, the Virgin Islands, Yemen, or any other restricted country or jurisdiction where trading is prohibited by law.
Doto provides an economic calendar, a news screener, and Trading Central insights — all conveniently integrated into its trading platform. I found the AI-generated trading signals particularly useful for identifying actionable opportunities. However, while Doto’s research tools are practical, the overall offering feels limited compared to what many competitors provide.
Doto’s market research caters well to day traders, offering actionable Trading Central signals that make it easy to spot and act on emerging opportunities with just a few clicks.
That said, while the tools are practical and effective, the research itself lacks depth. Doto could elevate its offering by including more detailed market analyses and broader insights to complement its short-term trading focus.
Doto offers several articles on its trading platform, as well as an extensive Help Center filled with practical articles and step-by-step guides. However, there are no other types of content, such as videos or e-books, that delve deep into the subject matter.
I found 10 educational articles available directly on Doto’s trading platform and mobile app. These cover basic topics like reading price action and understanding risk management, but there’s little focus on technical analysis, fundamental analysis, or trading psychology.
Beyond the platform, Doto also maintains a Help Center on its website with over 70 articles explaining key trading concepts, risk management principles, and step-by-step platform tutorials.
The broker also shared that it plans to launch live webinars soon to further support clients and expand their trading knowledge.
Overall, I appreciate Doto’s efforts to provide a mix of practical and accessible learning materials. That said, the educational library still feels limited compared to what’s offered by larger, content-focused brokers.
Doto stands out as a modern, well-regulated broker with a strong focus on usability and technology. Its proprietary web platform — powered by TradingView and enhanced with Trading Central analytics — is one of the best in its class, offering traders advanced charting tools and real-time signals within a clean, intuitive interface. I found Doto particularly appealing for day traders and technically oriented traders who value actionable insights and quick execution.
That said, Doto still has room for improvement. While it offers pretty favorable costs on forex and share CFDs, its spreads on gold and indices are higher than the industry average. I also found that Doto’s research and educational materials lag behind those of other brokers. The absence of copy trading and Islamic accounts also limits its appeal for certain audiences.
Overall, Doto is a solid and transparent broker that strikes a balance between innovation and accessibility. It’s an excellent pick for active traders looking for a sleek, analytics-driven platform, though beginners may find its learning resources too limited compared to industry leaders.
Headquarters Country | Cyprus |
Foundation Year | 2019 |
Regulations | FSCA (South Africa), CySEC (Cyprus), FSCM (Mauritius), FSA (Seychelles) |
Publicly Traded | No |
Number Of Employees | 53 |
Trading Desk Type | STP, No dealing desk |
Trading Platforms | MT4, MT5, Doto Platform |
Restricted Countries | American Samoa, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Central African Republic, China, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo, Cote dIvoire, Eritrea, Guam, Iran, Israel, Japan, Liberia, Libya, Mali, Mauritius, Myanmar, New Zealand, North Korea, Northern Mariana Islands, Norway, Puerto Rico, Russian Federation, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States, Virgin Islands, U.S., Yemen, Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden |
Supported Languages | English, Indonesian, Bahasa, Portuguese, Arabic, Spanish, Russian, Thai, Vietnamese |
Min Deposit | $15 |
Max Leverage | 1:500 (FSCA), 1:30 (CySEC), 1:500 (FSCM), 1:500 (FSA) |
Deposit Options | Wire Transfer, Credit Card, Debit Card, Local Banks, Local Payment Methods |
Withdrawal Options | Wire Transfer, Credit Card, Debit Card, Cryptocurrencies |
Time to Withdrawal | 2 |
Time to Open an Account | 7 |
Crypto | Bitcoin Cash, Bitcoin, Ethereum, Binance Coin, Ripple, Dogecoin, Cardano, Solana, Litecoin, Polkadot |
Products | Currencies, Stocks, ETFs, Crypto, Indices, Commodities |
Demo Account | Yes |
OCO Orders | No |
Offers Hedging | Yes |
Automated Trading | Yes |
API Trading | No |
Guaranteed Stop Loss | No |
Guaranteed Limit Orders | No |
Guaranteed Fills / Liquidity | No |
Economic calendar | Yes |
Trading From Chart | No |
One-Click Trading | Yes |
Expert Advisor | Yes |
Social Trading | Yes |
Autochartist | No |
Trading Signals | Yes |
Platform Languages | Portuguese, Arabic, Thai, Vietnamese, English, Spanish, Russian, Bahasa, Indonesian |
24 Hours Support | Yes |
Support During Weekends | Yes |
Live Chat | Yes |
Daily Market Commentary | No |
News (Top-Tier Sources) | Yes |
Webinars | Yes |
Deposit Fee | No |
Withdrawal Fee | No |
Inactivity Fee | Yes |
Having been a retail trader since 2013, Plamen has gained an in-depth understanding of the challenges that novice traders face today. His expertise is swing trading and day trading with a heavy emphasis on psychological and fundamental analysis. Plamen’s favourite trading instruments include FX majors and gold. He earned a Bachelor's degree in Economics and International Relations. Plamen's broad experience has equipped him with the expertise to recommend the best forex brokers.
At FXEmpire, we strive to provide unbiased, thorough and accurate broker reviews by industry experts to help our users make smarter financial decisions.